Kimberly M. Craig
SUNY Binghamton
ANTH 576A-01: Near East Complex Societies
Dr. Michael Sugerman
December 2018
“HI, I’M COPPER”: AN INTRODUCTION
Most objects of antiquity have only ever taken a single man-made form in their lifetime, making it easy to surmise their previous uses and roles in history. A precious bead of lapis lazuli most likely only ever existed in its raw form before it was carved into its cylindrical shape and placed to rest on some high-ranking figures funerary headdress (Hafford & Hickman, 2018). An obsidian chalice probably only ever served to bring wine to the lips of a temple priest (Oates, 2007: 594). This is the destiny of most stone. Once cut, it is bound by its shape, limited by its subtractive quality.
This, however, is not true of objects made of metal, whose inherent malleable properties allow it to mask its own history. What is now the change in your pocket, may once have been the pipes of an old tenement building or the button of an ancient king’s royal robe (Moorey, 1982: 19).
This essay will attempt to imagine the life history of a single lump of what Ira B. Jorelemon has deemed “mankind’s first metal”: copper (Jorelemon, 1973). In exploring the many iterations of a single material through observation of various archeological finds, I will tour the Near East from the years 8000 BCE to present day in order to imagine a life history that a portion of the copper still used today might have experienced. The forms our copper takes can tell us a lot about the priorities and social happenings of the time in which the shape was taken.
I argue that while the value of copper has continuously declined throughout history, its use as a social stratifier has remaining consistent. As the divide between rich and poor grows, copper is right there to remind us our place in line. I will look at six excavated copper-based objects and explore how they fit into history and examine their service as a device of social control.
Obviously, there is no way that the objects selected could have descended from the same copper mass, as they all exist in their current forms simultaneously. However, by using these objects as examples we can imagine a transformation that might have happened. The accompanying illustration is a fictionalized version of this chronology based on the research provided below.
IMPORTANCE OF COPPER
Present-day slogans from the copper industry speak volumes of the value modern humans place on this often-snubbed material. “Cu - commonly underrated” and “Copper: the other white gold” are just a few of the current trademarks of our underdog protagonist (“Copper Slogans,” n.d.).
It took 10,000 years to land this banal status. As one of the first metals with which humans experimented (Sagona & Zimansky, 2009: Ch.2), copper holds an important place in the history of social development and technology. Although once held with the same admiration as gold for its shared hallmarks of luster and pliability (“Copper: An Ancient Metal,” n.d.), it has since become the underling to its over-glorified cousin.
BABY COPPER: THE EARLY YEARS
There is much debate over when and where humans first started to use copper (“Copper: An Ancient Metal,” n.d.), but copper object begin to appear in the archaeological record of the Near East as early as the Pre-Pottery Neolithic (PPN - 8500-5500 BCE) (Sagona & Zimansky, 2009: Ch 2). At some point during this period, the discovery a malleable “rock” which holds a sharp edge would lead our prehistoric ancestors out of the Stone Age and into the “Ages of Metals”: Copper, Bronze, and eventually Iron (“Copper: An Ancient Metal,” n.d.).
The earliest metal objects found in Near East were discovered at a site called Çayönü (7200 to 6600 BCE) in what is modern-day Turkey. Over 200 copper artifacts and fragments were excavated including objects such as needles, hooks, beads and rings. It is assumed that the copper was sourced from the mines of Ergani which are only 20km away (Sagona & Zimansky, 2009: Ch 2).
OBJECT 1 - PURE COPPER RING
Period: Ubaid (6500 to 3800 BCE)
Location: GAWRA XVII
Utilized by: Unknown Elite (?)
Function: Signify social status (Moorey, 1982: 19)
During this Pre-pottery era humans had not yet fully ascertained how to harness the awesome energy of fire and managing the temperature necessary to melt copper (Gillespie, 2018). It’s no surprise then that these early copper objects were not cast, but rather manipulated using a process known as cold hammering. This technique, as its name suggests, requires no heat, only force via pounding the metal with a blunt object. The copper ore was hammered into thin flat sheets, cut into strips, then be rolled into beads, tubes, or rings (Sagona & Zimansky, 2009: Ch. 4).
These objects are representative of early specialization. As societies grew in complexity, individuals could devote their time to mastering specific skills. The question is: who owned these objects? Did everyone wear copper rings and bracelets? For whom where these adornments created? While we may never be able to answer with certainty, we can assume from their lack of abundance is indicative of the value of our copper mass in its first form.
The function of these early objects that is particularly telling. Rings, pendants and bracelets serve no utilitarian purpose. The do not aid in the process of food manufacturing like the equally rare obsidian blades (Sagona & Zimansky, 2009: Ch 2) or shelter from the elements like a mud brick house. They are simply worn as an aesthetic ornamentation. Cross-culturally we see adornment used to indicate insider/outsider status between two groups, but it can also symbolize rankings within a group, as a visual cue of positioning oneself in society (Shukla, 2006). The limited numbers in which these early copper objects are found supports this theory.
COPPER COMES OF AGE: CHALCOLITHIC ERA
Smelting technology, whereby copper ore is heated to very high temperatures, melting out the pure copper, wasn’t invented until after pottery began appearing in the archeological record (“Copper: An Ancient Metal,” n.d.). Because such high temperatures are needed to melt copper, it is assumed that that it was most likely discovered mistakenly by potters experimenting with their kilns (“60 Centuries of Copper: Man Becomes Metal-Conscious,” n.d.). This new technology gave rise to what would be called the Chalcolithic Age (5500-3000 BCE) (Yener, 2000: 25).
Metallurgy was seen as na empirical and experimental technology during this time in which proficiency in small scale luxury objects was achieved (Yener, 2000: 25-26). This pure copper items were more brittle than later copper-alloyed objects (“Copper: An Ancient Metal,” n.d.). It wasn’t until experimentation with added different metals together that copper’s full potentially was unlocked.
COPPER MAKE A FRIEND: THE BRONZE AGE
It was most likely the Egyptians, who around 4,000 BCE first discovered that mixing copper with tin produced a metal that was harder, stronger, and easier to cast than either of the materials in their pure form (“Copper: An Ancient Metal,” n.d.). The invention of bronze, which is 90% copper to 10% tin (Kulakoglu & Kangal, 2010: 57), made for more durable tools (“Copper: An Ancient Metal,” n.d.).
Tin was harder to come by in the Near East as it had to be sourced from distances as far as modern day Afghanistan and Malaysia (Yener, 2000: 71). It’s scarcity made it more valuable thereby lowering the status of copper (the first step in in our friend’s demise). The new alloyed metal lead to new advancements in weaponry which suddenly became important, now that there were valuable bronze objects to protect ...and pillage (“Copper: An Ancient Metal,” n.d.).
OBJECT 2 - ARROWHEAD
Period: Early Dynastic III (2900–2350 BCE)
Location: Abu Salabikh
Utilized by: Royal Soldiers
Function: Protect King (Moorey, 1982:28)
With the onset of bronze weaponry, our copper mass is no longer limited to the elites, but is placed in the hands of the class of people whose job it is to keep the rulers in power: soldiers. Without allowing access of the material to this 2nd tier rung of society, stratification could not be maintained. These objects of war kill those that don’t accept and obey the social hierarchy, further widening the wealth gap. The 80 bronze cast arrowheads discovered at Abu Salabikh are thought to have belonged to the guards of the royal tomb (Moorey, 1982:33).
COPPER GETS BOSSY: REMINDERS OF RULE
While the armies were off fighting in the name of their King, the citizens at home would have been constantly reminded of their loyalties by the use of repeated imagery of their ruler displayed throughout the cities.
OBJECT 3 - Head of Sargon the Great
Period: Akkadian Period, ca. 2300–2200 BCE
Location: Nineveh
Utilized by: Palatial servants of Sargon of Akkad (?)
Purpose: Remind palace attendants of sovereign (Bahrani, n.d.)
Before the Akkadian period, artistic depictions mostly focused on the realm of the gods. This cast of the powerful Mesopotamian king, Sargon of Akkad, signifies a great turning point in human history, where human sovereigns too began being represented. This deviation in art imagery coincided with a political shift, as Sargon was the first known ruler to unite multiple territories and proclaim himself king (Bahrani, n.d.).
It is thought that during this time, there was no difference between the understanding of representation and reality. An image of an object was seen as the thing itself (Bahrani, n.d.). Thus, this bust of Sargon would have commanded as much agency as Sargon himself. In a world where iconography holds this much power, it makes sense that only highest status individuals would be immortalized in metal.
We don’t know where this artifact would have been placed, but we do know that his entire body was once attached (Bahrani, n.d.). Through replication as statue, our mass of copper would have acted as a reminder of Sargon’s dominance over his subject (Scarre and Fagan, 2016:86). While the statue was presumably owned by Sargon, it would have been utilized by his entire kingdom and his loyal followers by whom it was made to be viewed. If the bronze cast was located within the own palace, it would have been for his palatial servants, who would have been a step below his royal guards but still above the common citizen. Our copper mass takes has once again been lowered on the social ladder of the ancient Near East.
COPPER IN THE IRON AGE
This trend of sovereign depiction as a device to maintain control continued for many years. Fast forward to the Iron Age (1200 – 550 BCE) and we still find copper-based objects used to stratify the population. The embossed bronze bands of the doors to an administrative building in the ancient city of Balawat are perhaps the most well-known example of this flexing of power (Barnett, Curtis, & Tallis, 2008). The purely decorative objects, while adorning a building associated with the ruling class, are meant to be viewed by the lower echelons of society - not to be possessed by common civilian, but to act as a reminder that they are possessions of king.
Images of Shalmaneser III capturing foreign cities in Hamath with his godlike horns caution his followers to stay in line and pay their dues to their honorable ruler (Barnett et al., 2008).This was a particularly important message to send to the people in cities like Balawat as Shalmanesser III needed to maintain control while living far away in Kalhu (Encyclopædia Britannica, 1911). Our copper friend is now separated from the elites not only in status but also by distance.
OBJECT 4 - Bronze Bands of Balawat
Period: Neo-Assyrian (858-824 BCE)
Location: Balawat (Iraq)
Utilized by: Commoners of Balawat
Purpose: Remind city dwellers of their sovereignty to a foreign king (Barnett et al., 2008)
COPPER SEES THE WORLD: TRADE
By the Early Iron Age (1200 – 550 BCE), trade within the Middle East was buzzing. Waterway connections were made from Egypt all the way to Thailand (“The Bronze Age World System,” n.d.) which would have been vital to maintaining expansive empires. Overland trade was also in motion thanks to the domestication of donkeys and eventually camels (Zonszein, 2014), but at a much slower speed than that of their seafaring counterparts (“The Bronze Age World System,” n.d.). Metals played a significant role in this early international trade. For donkey-led caravans it was important that goods, be light, durable, and valuable enough to merit the long-distance trek. Objects such as belt buckles, vessels, jewelry and weights for textiles were traded in cities like Kanesh (Kulakoglu & Kangal, 2010:47).
OBJECT 4 - Luristan Bronze - Finials
Period: Early Iron Age (1200 – 550 BCE)
Location: Iran
Utilized by: Overland traders (?) or herders (?)
Purpose: finials for temporary shelters in the desert (LACMA, n.d.)
Some of the most famous archaeological finds from this period are decorative bronze ornaments known as Luristan Bronze (Oudbashi & Hasanpour, 2018). This one is thought to be a finial for a tent pole. Who it might have belonged to is unknown. Tents would have been necessary for long distance desert trade, which lead me to believe that it might have belonged to a nomadic trader or herders. For these kinds of decorative yet utilitarian objects, “master of animals” motifs are common. The images often depict a man, usually interpreted at Gilgamesh, wrestling two animals that are flanked on either side. This is a meaningful expression symbolizing the ideologies of the times. Not only has man conquered man (in that there are rulers and followers), but the motif suggests that man has also conquered the wild (“The Bronze Age World System,” n.d.). Our copper friend is now being used to stratifying, not the only human realm, but the natural world as well as signified by this object belonging to someone living on the periphery of society.
COPPER GETS PAID: MONEY
With all this trade happening, it’s easy to imagine the next logical step for copper would be coinage. But trade happens for thousands of years before the minted coin finally appears in the seventh century BCE by the Lydians (Whipps, 2007). Before that, it is argued that Mesopotamia had no money (at least not in the way that we currently define it), but rather a use a system of bullions (Monroe, 2005:155) which is a unit or mass of pure metal (“Bullion | Definition of Bullion by Merriam-Webster,” n.d.).
If we agree to define money as a technology or “a given monetary system as a language of value” as opposed a physical good, we can say that money was being used as early as the Old Akkadian period (2334–2194 BCE) in the form of weights of metals, such as copper (Monroe, 2005:158). These conventions were based off the average weight a worker could carry, (called a “load”). A load was then broken down into sub portions with a “shekel” (1/120 of a load) being the standard denomination for measuring small amounts of precious metal (Monroe, 2005:159). Prices of goods would often be cited in shekels of copper or gold, but silver was the most frequently (Monroe, 2005:160).
While it was common to carry bullions in standardized, pre-weighed goblets by the shekel, there is also record of bullion coils in Ur III to Old Babylonian period (2112–1595 BCE) (Monroe, 2005: 160). These coils would be representative of multiple shekels and could be cut when needing to “make change” for smaller denominations of money (for example a 1⁄2 a shekel) (Silver, 1983: 818).
OBJECT 5 - COPPER COILS
Period: Late 3rd millennium
Location: Babylonia
Utilized by: Everyone
Purpose: Trade (Silver, 1983:818)
In terms of value, the metals ranked the same as they do today. In descending order of value, they go: (1) gold, (2) silver, (3) tin, (4) bronze, (5) copper, (6) lead (Monroe, 2005: 160). As an example, a standard measure of grain (about 150 liters) would cost 1 shekel of silver which translated to about 180 shekels of copper (Monroe, 2005:161). This doesn’t seem too far off from our current standards of copper - a bag of rice at the store would cost you about 180 pieces of copper (pennies) or $1.80.
We can see now that our copper has taken its final step down the social ladder. The material once associated with elites is now in the pockets of all citizens and in its least glamorous form. No longer is our hero shaped into a beautiful work of art. Aesthetics are no longer important for these ugly globular masses. Stripped to its bare essentials, only its naked value is of importance.
COPPER TODAY
Later Romans would stamp images of their ideologies (Kulakoglu & Kangal, 2010:47) on their bullions of metal and create a recognizable system of centralized currency. Four millennia later we are still using copper coins stamped with the ideologies of the ruling powers. It’s incredible that a system of trading bits of metal for goods has lasted for so long.
The status of protagonist is now at its lowest point, where the production of a single copper coin has exceeded its value. It currently costs 1.5 cents to mint the tangible manifestation of 1/100USD (Whaples, 2007). The expression “not worth a copper” perfectly sums up modern attitudes of the material being the bedrock of value (Slosson, 1924 cited in Davis, 1924:xxii). While researching copper coins, I found a quote from British actress, Tamsin Greig (Greig, n.d.):
I knew a homeless guy who'd give all the copper coins that people gave him to charity. So I think there's something that makes us want to give. For me, it's quite a selfish luxury: you feel enlivened, deepened and self-nurtured by generosity.
The purpose of the quote is focused on generosity, but I was struck by the unintended dig at our friend, copper. It has become so worthless that even a homeless person sees no immediate value in it. Also, the irony of a wealthy actress is discussing the financial habits of an impoverished person perfectly illustrates ideas of modern inequality. The separation of wealth and poverty is currently at its largest divide with copper still here, keeping us in line.
PENNY FOR YOUR THOUGHTS: A CONCLUSION
The value of the copper has been on a steady decline since it was first discovered 10,000 years ago but its use as a social stratification device remains intact today. From the bracelet adorning the wrists of social elites, to the scrap of change even a homeless person doesn’t want, this shiny metal has seen the whole of complex human society. Though its value has waned, the once respected metal still serves as a boundary between the rich and the poor.
REFERENCES CITED
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